Does Technology Make a Difference? Essay

In Port Jackson, the first British colony of New South Wales arrived. When the colony arrived in January 1788, they came across Aboriginal people who were known to fish around Port Jackson. As of today, there is said to be over 580 species that live in the waters around Port Jackson. The Aboriginal people had been fishing in these areas long enough to make fish a part of their diet. When the British brought their colony to Port Jackson, they learned to also make fish part of their diet. Aboriginal people used the resources around them to make equipment and transportation to fish. They made spears for people who would fish from the shore, and made small canoes and fishhooks out of shells for those who wanted the challenge of catching bigger fish. When the British saw how these people would catch their food, they brought over fishhooks made of metal, nets and boats that were much larger than the canoes. Introducing new and better technology in an environment is never easy. This article discusses the important issues to understand, the good and the bad of technology. Introducing a new technology to an older method made the business of fishing boom, which was good for both sides. With the British bringing in their methods helped bring more fish for the people to eat, with the addition of what the Aboriginals would bring in at the end of the day. Also having the new technology, there was a broader variety of new fish that couldn’t be caught with the old methods. It also helped the Aboriginals convert to using the methods that the British used after seeing how much more fish they could catch in a day. But like everything new to people, it caused the Aboriginals kind of give up on their methods all the way, just to keep up with the British. After a while the Aboriginals would start working on the British boats to earn a percentage of the fish they would all catch each day. The British would also trade some of the fish they had caught for equipment from the Aboriginals. And after a couple years of mass fishing, both parties would fall into the issue of overfishing and pollution from commercial fisheries. As a whole, I thought this whole article was interesting to me, but there was a few things that stuck out more than others. It is mind blowing to hear that just alone, Port Jackson has over 580 species. I always knew that there is quite a few different species of fish, but to think that there is over 580 at Port Jackson and then think about how we can’t swim to the bottom of the ocean to discover what lives only down there makes you wonder if any of the legends we’ve heard as children could be true. There could be all sorts of ancestors of fish or other living things deep down there; they may have lived through ancient history. The other interesting thing I read was about all the fish bones. I know that when things die they leave behind bones, but to think about fish bones lasting that long is crazy. When we cook fish and eat them, you see their bones and how small and fragile they are, and to think that some fish bones can last for thousands of years it’s amazin g. Even though I thought this article was very interesting, there were a few things that were a little difficult for me while reading. I really enjoy learning about the ways of archaeologists and anthropologists, but when I read articles like this I have a hard time following what the author is saying because of all of the weird, scientific names they give to fish, animals or even people. I know that it is just how things are named in the science world, I’m just not familiar with all the terms yet, and so I get confused sometimes. Also I get stumped non-stop about how they found out so much information about a certain thing when we didn’t live back then. I think it is amazing how they find so much information from something so small, like a fish bone, but at the same time its mind boggling because its not like bones, rocks, trees, or other things that they study come with instructions. And I think these things are the reason I am so fascinated with this line of work. For archaeology, this is a very important article to explain that what they do is very important. Archaeology to me is a very important part of our lives. If it wasn’t from them, I wouldn’t have been able to learn things about our past from this article. We learn so much about our pasts and that helps us with our future because of the studies that archaeologists do, like in the article. It’s because of them that we are able to know that the Aboriginal people have to convert to a new method of technology because of the British. It also helps us understand what the living was like at Port Jackson during that time period, which also helps understand what type of plants and animals and fish lived during that time. Which has an end result to help explain the transformation how the fish we know about today are different in some way from the past fish, but know that today’s fish came from the past. It’s the same thing with humans, they study and do tests o f human remains from thousands and thousands of years to get a better understand of where we came from, and what we used to look like or how we came to the features that we have today. In conclusion, this article has given me a lot of new information that helps me understand our pasts a little better. At the same time, it also helps you open your eyes a little more because in today’s world, we have technology change all the time and we are just all so use to it that we don’t really see how much it really changes us or even how it effects us all. Back in the 1780’s I understand and realize how scary change can be for people or colonies. It would be pretty scary for a colony to move to a place you’ve lived and bring these new methods that help and hurt your lifestyle at the same time. And today we don’t usually have those feelings or worries because we are so use to change that we act like it’s nothing. It is also amazing how we are able to look at artifacts or bones from the past, like fish and we know what type of fish they are and long ago they had died. Reading articles like this just is amazing to me because you always wonder how we got to where we are today, or where did we actually come from and why do we have similar features from a bunch of different mammals.

The effect of temperature on respiration

Every living thing respires in some way. There are two forms of respiration, aerobic and anaerobic. Areobic respiration only takes place in the presence of oxygen and is a far more efficient way for complexed organisms to convert carbohydrates into energy. There are four stages in aerobic respiration, Glycolysis, the link reaction, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Anaerobic respiration is far less efficient than aerobic, but can produce low yields of energy quickly. T6he overall equation for respiration is; C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy A respiratory quotient (RQ) is used to show what substrate is being used in respiration, it can also show if anaerobic respiration is occurring. The following equations can be used to calculate RQ: RQ = Volume of carbon dioxide given out in unit of time Volume of oxygen taken in unit of time Or RQ = moles or molecules of carbon dioxide given out Moles or molecules of oxygen taken in Prediction I predict that an increase in temperature will increase the respiration rate. The increase will only take place until a certain temperature is reached, the respiration rate will then start to decrease after that temperature. I think that the respiration rate will start to decrease after 50 C. This is because as the temperature increases, the enzymes and substrate molecules involved in respiration will gain more activation energy. This means that the enzymes and substrate are more likely to collide, and a reaction to take place. I think that respiration will reach its optimum rate at about 40 C, this is because enzymes work best at about this temperature, that is only providing that another factor, such as oxygen available, does not become a limiting factor. Preliminary work To test the effects of temperature on respiration a respirometer wil be used. A respirometer consists of two test tubes, an experimental test tube and a control tube, and a capillary U-tube. The experimental tube contains soda-lime solution with a wire gauze platform over it, with non-vertebrates in it. The control tube also contains soda-lime, with a wire gauze above it, with glass beads in it. Both tubes are sealed and attached to the u-tubing containing manometer fluid. A respirometer is suitable for measuring the rate of oxygen consumption of small terrestrial invertebrates. The Carbon dioxide produced in respiration is absorbed by a suitable chemical such as soda-lime or Potassium Hydroxide solution. The amount of oxygen used can be measured by reading the level of manometer fluid against the scale. Using a water bath alters the temperature. We did a test run using this equipment; germinating peas were used instead of small invertebrates. Only one test was completed, this was at room temperature no repeats were made. This was due to time restrictions. This test run taught us how to set up the equipment. We compared our results gained to reference book values and decided that they were reasonably reliable. Variables: * The surrounding atmospheric temperature of the water bath must remain constant to prevent anomalous results being obtained. * The atmospheric pressure must remain constant; this is ok because the experiment will take place in the same room all of the time. * A control tube is used to compensate in small changes in atmospheric pressure. * The same volume and concentration of NaOH must be used in every experiment; this is to prevent more or less CO2 being absorbed. * The mass of the invertebrates and the number of invertebrates must remain constant to prevent differences in respiration rates occurring. Five different temperature inputs will be used, these temperatures will be 10 C, 20 C, 30 C, 40 C and 50 C. These temperatures provide a good range for which varying respiration rates can occur. The enzymes involved in respiration will be working very slowly at both 10 C and 50 C. The optimal temperature for respiration can also be found using these temperatures. These changes in temperature will not do any harm to the invertebrates, by over heating them. Each test will be repeated three times to gain an average result and to remove any anomalous results as far as possible. Apparatus * Two large test tubes * Sodium Hydroxide solution * Two test tube bungs, with two holes in each * 4 capillary tubes * 1 capillary u-tube containing manometer fluid * 1Cm syringe * 8 maggots * Glass beads * 2 small pieces of wire gauze * 1 screw clip * 1 three way tap * Stopwatch Method 1. Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram above 2. Using the syringe, adjust the level of manometer fluid in the u-tubing to ensure that it is the same level at both sides 3. Seal the screw clip and record the level of manometer fluid every two minutes, over a period of 10 minutes. 4. repeat step 3 for the temperatures of 10 C, 20 C(room temperature), 30 C, 40 C and 50 C. These temperatures can be reached by using either a water bath or crushed ice 5. Each test must be repeated 3 times. 6. Record each result in a table and work out the average. Use the results to calculate the RQ values. Risk Assessment * The NaOH is corrosive, so it must be kept away from the invertebrates. Saftey goggles and a lab coat must be worn to protect eyes and clothes from NaOH. * Living creatures must be treated with respect * Any spillages must be mopped up immediately to prevent accidents occurring.

Contract Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Contract Assignment - Essay Example With at least two forms –the vendors and the purchasers—vying for legal standing the courts find themselves adjudicating a battle of the forms. They must determine what form applies, if any, or, alternately, that neither form applies and by default, a given contractual dispute must be resolved by recourse to the Sale of Goods Act rather than by the terms and conditions set out by either firm. (â€Å"Sale of Goods Act C. 54† 1979) his was the judgement that the court arrived at in â€Å"GHSP INC v. AB ELECTRONIC LTD† [2010] EWHC 1828 (Comm) Case No: 2008 Folio 1353. Neither the form of the seller AB Electronic Ltd. nor that of the purchaser, GHSP Inc. was held to be valid In lieu of a specific contract the court relied on the â€Å"Sale of Goods Act, 1979†. This issue is of considerable importance for both buyers and sellers. Understandably, the sellers standard form will contain terms that are beneficial to the seller while the purchasers form will favour the purchasers interests. Often the determination of which contract is applicable will resolve the dispute, implicitly, in favour of the party whose contract is accepted by the courts. It is for this reason that a battle of the forms can have such great importance. For more than thirty years the courts have relied on Butler Machine Tool Company Ltd. v. EX-CELL-O Corporation (England) Limited† [1977] EWCA Civ 9 Case No. 172 B. No. 234 when confronted with a battle of the forms. Briefly, Butler contracted to produce a production machine for EX-CELL-O Corp. They produced a contract for production of said machine with a price, terms and delivery details. EX-CELL-O responded with acceptance of the price on their own form that contained different details, particularly as they related to additional costs incurred prior to their receipt of the machine. Butlers contract contained a clause allowing them to charge any price increases

Plato vs. Aristotle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Plato vs. Aristotle - Essay Example Although the theory is destined to set up tangible values for the knowledge of realism, Aristotle believes it burdened with discrepancies and considers that the idea of realism depends ahead all forms of connections to other rudiments. Ideas, Plato thinks, are everlasting, self-contained absolutes, which respond to every point of precise knowledge achieved through human consideration. Also, ideas are in Plato's analysis are of tangible values by which all human effort can be reviewed, for the pecking order of all ideas guides to the uppermost absolute, that of Good. Additionally, the theory asserts that situations of being are dependent in the lead of the blending of a variety of types of subsistence, that knowledge is idea and therefore obviously more genuine plus that only the courses of nature were suitable entities. However, Aristotle assaults this conjecture on the basis that Plato's point of view are uncertain either his declaration are not at all convincing. Aristotle states or in other words, his point of view directs to opposing ends. The most important dissimilarities that can be distinguished amid these two arguments are seen when the objectives of both Plato and Aristotle ar... The most important dissimilarities that can be distinguished amid these two arguments are seen when the objectives of both Plato and Aristotle are examined. Plato has two major objectives following his argument; the first is to disprove the situation that unfairness is better than fairness and secondly, his human function quarrel which assists to set up the idea of his model metropolises, in which every individual has a purpose and the city is righteous when everybody executes their own purpose. Aristotle is exploratory joy as the decisive end and is probing for methods to get to that stage. Therefore, by demonstrating that this good is initiated in the expression of cause, Aristotle is capable to set down a course to happiness. If one accomplishes one's purpose, expression of cause and does so in an outstanding way, than one will essentially achieve joy. One more way in which the two points of view vary is on their genuine conceptualization of what the human purpose is. For Plato, t he human purpose is described as thought, judgment, existing and be careful with a lot of things. This varies very much from Aristotle idea of the human purpose which is, to carry out activities that convey reason. Not simply are these two meanings a lot dissimilar but they demonstrate the gap amid the ways that both philosopher are arguing for the thought of a human purpose1. Plato vs. Aristotle 3 Plato believes of it in the conditions of the person's position in society. His ideas of judgment, purposeful, et cetera pertains to the society in which one resides and one's relation to it. Aristotle moves toward the dilemma from a lot more distinctive

Could materialistic behavior affect personal relationships How so Essay

Could materialistic behavior affect personal relationships How so - Essay Example Materialistic behavior is an individual’s value, which shows the importance a person places on the possession and acquisition on material wealth. Materialistic people have two key characteristics, for instance, they believe material things acquisition and possession as a requirement for happiness. They also tend to judge their success and the success of other people based on their material possession. Materialistic behavior has crucial implications on personal relationship and social relationships as a whole. Materialistic behavior tend have a negative connection with a person’s wellbeing and related anticipated personal results. Materialism is believed to be the main cause of deferential relationships between people in the society. The adoption of values of materialism influences the balance between public and private decisions that an individual make in his life and the relationship with individuals of different wealth status.

Nike Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nike - Essay Example loyed wherein the market would be segmented on the basis of the ‘benefits’ sought by the customers and the ‘user status.’ This method of segmentation would provide ‘athletes’ and ‘women involved in fitness exercises’ (say yoga) as two potential market segments. In addition to the aforesaid consumer segments, we can target the various athletic training centers and sports clubs for the new Nike shoe as business customers. We will convince the management of such centers and clubs about the superiority and functionality of the new Nike shoe so that we can sell in bulk to these centers. These institutions will serve as a lucrative B2B market for the new brand. Mass marketing refers to offering the product to the entire market without taking into consideration the differing needs of the customers. Multi-segment strategy refers to offering the same product in more than one segment. We will not adopt the mass marketing or multi-segment strategy for the new Nike shoe but would go ahead with a concentrated strategy when the product is launched. We have decided to target athletes from amongst the possible consumer market segments discussed above. The new shoe from Nike would be of great use to athletes as these shoes are extremely light and do not, in any way, compromise on durability and stability. To begin with, we will go ahead with the B2C model and make the shoe available at exclusive Nike stores as well as through the online store. In addition to this, we will use the selective distribution strategy and make the shoe available at few select multi-brand stores as well. The consumer of the Nike shoe will pass through four distinct stages; Attention, Interest, Desire and Action (referred to as the AIDA Model). The buying process of the consumer begins with need identification. The consumer feels a state of deprivation and feels that he needs a certain product to get rid of the state of deprivation. In other words, the consumer needs a product to satisfy

Justification write up for nominating for Environment, Health & Safety Term Paper

Justification write up for nominating for Environment, Health & Safety award - Term Paper Example Central Operations is committed to creating and sustaining an accident free culture for our employees and customers, as well as the public. Each operating system is responsible for integrating EH&S considerations, aimed at minimizing and controlling potential risks and hazards, into the planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of the company’s energy delivery system and facilities. Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA) was performing the design of the East Side Access (ESA) project, which is intended to bring Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) to the Grand Central Terminal. As part of this project, blasting was performed to break their wall adjacent to the existing steam delivery system. This blasting created vibrations below ground which damaged the steam support components. As a result of the blast, a 16† steam pipe shifted and fell off the supports. Engineering, in collaboration with Operations, determined the risks, scope of work, performed stress analysis, layout, and field inspections to resolve this problem. SDE and Steam Operations made field visits, identified the potential risks, and acted urgently to maintain safety, reliability, and to restore the system. In an effort to restore the system, the team inspected the affected site and recommended installing 4 special beam guides at the pipe offsets to accommodate for unusual pipe stress. Due to limited drilling depth, as a result of city sewer pathways crossing below our structures, the guides were designed to have a special base plate and anchor bolts. Field inspections found asbestos containing material insulating the original steam pipe. The abatement crew removed the asbestos insulation, using procedure 11924-5, and prior to doing any construction work to re-align the main. They then took measurements submitting them to contracted engineers selected to begin work on the repairs. Next, our

Attica Correctional Facility Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Attica Correctional Facility - Research Paper Example The Attica Correctional Facility maintains a large industrial operation producing a variety of textile items and metal products. There is also a large program of vocational and academic education. In addition, it maintains extensive programs in family service, mental health and youth assistance. Authors of the Prison Monitoring Report: Attica also stated that they were left with both positive and negative impressions about the facility. While some programs provide beneficial and productive opportunities for inmates to gain skills and confront difficult challenges, they were struck by a widespread sense of fear and intimidation among the inmates. Reports of staff physically abusing inmates and retaliation by officers against inmates who file complains about staff were extensive. Although inmates had positive impressions about Superintendent James Conway and his administration, they reported that he was unable to halt the pervasive violence and abuse by the officers. The four-day riot at the Attica Correctional Facility was reported by History.com as the bloodiest prison insurrection in US History. It was reported that on September 9, 1971 a group of inmates at the facility assaulted a prison guard and began rioting. They took prison employees hostage and gained control of portions of the facility. After which, negotiations between inmates and prison officials followed. The inmates demanded better living conditions at the overcrowded prison. However, an article on the American Express website reported some events essential to validating the purpose of the riot. It reported that inmates who were predominantly African American and Puerto Ricans were incensed at the deteriorating living conditions-among them, the fact that they were only allowed to shower once per week and were allowed one roll of toilet paper per month. Overcrowding had also

To critically analyze of the impact the Customer Relationship Dissertation

To critically analyze of the impact the Customer Relationship Management has made on Customer Loyalty in Renaissance Beijing Cap - Dissertation Example The dissertation begins with a comprehensive introduction, explaining what the paper is all about and giving a chronological sequence of how the text shall unfold in subsequent sections. Later the author has reviewed the literature in detail that has been utilized and studied to ascertain theories applicable to this scenario and how they are helpful in analyzing the practices being followed by this hotel. The scholarly resources used have been elaborated and theories selected have been explained to give a bird’s eye view to the readers about evidences that already exist regarding the effects CRM has on customer loyalty. An overview of CRM procedures has been provided in this section and correspondingly broad definition has been discussed for customer loyalty. The subsequent section elucidates the methodologies that have been adopted and implemented by the author in conducting the entire research for this dissertation. The procedures carried out have been justified and their pl anned outcomes have been entailed. The pivotal portion of this dissertation follows where rigorous analysis has been conducted and all related implications have been discussed in detail. Findings have been incorporated along with graphical illustrations. Finally, concluding remarks have been made to close the dissertation with fruitful outcomes, significance of topic has been discussed and recommendations have been made to the hotel’s management in the closing note. Acknowledgments To take this opportunity, I would like to express my thanks to the people who supported me in this research. Firstly, I would like to express my indeed gratefulness to my family and school friends, my mum, dad and my school friends. They motivated and inspired me a lot on achieving my Bachelor Degree. My dad and mum give me the best to make me happy and feel less stress, their love is my biggest motivation and nothing can replace it. Also, I have to thank my school friends as they always help me an d inspire me on the study and school life, they have contributed and shared the knowledge and opinion on the study of hospitality industry. Moreover, here I extend my gratitude and biggest gratefulness to Mr. Bradley. It is a great pleasure for me to have Mr. Bradley to be my tutor. Without his guidance and encouragement, I would not be able to complete this dissertation. Therefore, I would like to show my big thank to Mr. Bradley for his supporting. Last but not least, I would like to appreciate the big effort that contributed by Mr. Han, as the front office manager, he arranged the interview for me to investigate the CRM system and understand how CRM is implemented at the Renaissance Beijing Capital Hotel, as well as helped me for distributing questionnaires to the customers at the hotel. Table of Contents List of Tables, Figures and Illustrations Content Page 1.1 Structured Plan †¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 2.1 The effect of customer retention †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 7 2.2 Four types of CRM definitions †¦

How Math Is Used in Cooking Essay Example for Free

How Math Is Used in Cooking Essay Math is used for many things, but for me I will be using it in field of culinary arts. When many people think of math they automatically think of algebra or geometry, math is those things plus much more. Fractions, Measurements and weights are the kind of math that i will be using most in cooking. Classical cooking technique, baking and catering are all greatly effected by basic math fundamentals. I have to use exact measurements when making a beurre blanc or a consomme. measurements and math are very important to get the proper flavor and texture from any food being prepared . food is very precise, you need to use base elements before you can start improvising on your own. cooking is about more lenient in this regard but baking is a whole other world. Baking and pastry is pretty much chemistry but with food instead of raw elements. In chemistry of cooking you combine certain ingredients to produce other more finished products. When you are doing that every element needs to be weighed out exactly and combined in a certain manner, otherwise you will just end up with a mess. Catering is another place math is used to translate regular recipes into great volume, simple addition and multiplication aid in this field. If you have a simple recipe that serves 4-6 people you need to be able to multiply that by 10 or even 15 to feed many more people. Without basic math fundamentals one would not be able to create a meal or translate a recipe for a large catering job.

Focus on urbanization within India

Focus on urbanization within India Urbanization or the process of the development of cities is a relative term which varies from country to country. urban being non-rural, that is, no agriculture, livestock and extractive industries, urban area being the area where residents derive substantial amounts of household income from non-rural economic activities focused on a particular town, city or group of cities; and urbanization being the process by which increasing proportion of a countrys people live within urban areas  [1]  . Ironically India is considered less urban as compared to many of the European countries but its acquaintance with urban settlements is extremely deep rooted. Urbanization is not a new concept for India. India has witnessed different phases of Urbanization since the Bronze Age. The first phase of urbanization began in the Indus valley where Harappan civilisations flourished between 2350 B.C. and 1500 B.C. Major towns of this civilization were Harappa, Mohenjordaro, Lothal, Surkotada, Rojdi (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banwali (Haryana) and Ropar (Punjab). Some of these towns are in Pakistan now. In the ancient period of Indian history many other towns flourished and declined at different points of time. During the Vedic period in the north and the Dravidian age in the South this process of urbanization continued and cities like Hastinapur, Mathura, Ayodhya, Kapilavastu, Kusinagar, Vaishali, Patliputra, Varanasi, Rajgir, Champa, Ujjain, Mahishamati, Nagarjunakonda, Kancheepuram, Puhar, Uraiuyur, Madurai, Korkai and Vanji fourished. In the Mauryan and Gupta periods waves of urbanization gripped Indian subcontinent and then as the law of nature prescribes left the scattered remains that still attract our attention. During the medieval period many other towns and big cities thrived and became cradle of art, culture and civilization. Making new cities with certain distinguished features was the passion that Delhi Sultans and mighty Mughal Badshahs nurtured on a grand scale. New capitals were made that still stand as the symbol of their lost glory. The cities which grew and flourished during this period are Ludhiana, Hisar, Bikaner, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Kota, Chittaurgarh, Moradabad, Agra, Jaunpur, Ahmedabad, Indore, Raipur, Aurdfcgabad, Ahmadnagar, Pune, Gulbarga, Bijapur, Vijaynagar, Hyderabad (Golcunda) and Mysore. Cities like Delhi which had a several phases of development and redevelopment till the time of British is a silent witness to the waves of urbanization that engrossed it from time to time. This practice of renovating the city of Delhi continued after Independence of India in 1947. The British East India Company after its arrival contributed remarkably to the urbanization process by creating three metropolitan part cities of Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata (Calcutta) Chennai (Madras) and a chain of hill stations such as Shimla, Mussoori, Almora, Nainital, Darjeeling, Ooty, Kodaikanal, 85 many more. Besides, steps such as introduction of civil lines, cantonments, railways, modern industry and improvements in urban amnesties also strengthened the process of urbanization. Urbanization in India has progressed at different paces due to different reasons. Under the colonial rule it was stagnated due to the oppressive policies of the British. After gaining independence urban population in India has increased fivefold. However, the pattern of urbanization and pace at different places imitates the diversity of the Indian population. URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT There are numerous factors, which might influence the urban structure of a country viz. history, topography, natural resources and climate etc. however, when it comes to explaining the location, size and growth of urban centers, economic factors turn out to be the most dominating ones. Historically, urbanization has been viewed as an important factor in the arena of economic change. Urbanization is intrinsically connected and irrevocably enlaced with the development process, as an essential strand in the contemporary economic system. Urbanization is considered as an essential part of a stronger and more stable economy. It helps in improving the living standards the people living all over the world. Urbanization is regarded as synonymous with the economic development. The countries in the South Asia that urbanised most rapidly in the latter years of the 20th century are those with the most rapid economic growth  [2]  . Most of the worlds largest cities are in the worlds largest economies. Cities and towns also have important roles as centres of artistic, scientific and technological innovation, and of culture and education. In the last half a century urban population in the world and specifically in Asia has increased leading to the conclusion that many people are getting diverted to non-agricultural works. Here is a table showing growth of urban population in the World, Asia and India:- We can calculate the average annual growth rate of the urban population to do a comparative analysis of the process of Urbanization all over the world. Lets have a look at the growth rate of urban development from 1970 to 2005. It is clear that India is not lagging behind in the race of urbanization inspite of suffering under the colonial rule for almost three centuries. Moreover we have to consider the fact that India is largely an agricultural country where a huge section of the population is employed in cultivation. This factor not only ensures our self sufficiency in food production but also solve the problem of employment to a great extent. Today India can boast of being emerged as a strong self sufficient nation even after suffering under the colonial rule for a long period. Not only India, but many other Asian countries have established themselves as strong independent nations that can not only sustain themselves but also supply valuable goods to the world. Although most of the Asian countries suffered under the colonial rule till the mid of the 20th century, in 1990, 17 of the 28 largest urban agglomerations in the world were located in Asia. Cities such as Beijing, Bombay, Calcutta, Jakarta, Seoul, Shanghai, Tianjin and Tokyo had a population of close to or above 10 million. Some of these cities even perform key functions in the global economy and are world class cities. China which is the fastest growing economy in the world has the capacity to surpass America and England in the near future. So also India which has registered GDP of more than 8 per year. In the table given below we can get a fair idea how number of metropolitan cities has been increasing in the Asian countries which are classed as third world countries by the powerful European and American nations. The United Nations estimates indicate that at mid 1990s, about 43 per cent of the world population lived in urban areas. With the urban population growing two and a half times faster than its rural counterpart, the level of urbanization is projected to cross the 50 per cent mark in 2005. United Nations projections further show that by 2025, more than three- fifth of the world population will live in urban areas (U. N. 1993). According to Dr. Bhagat, there are three components of urban growth viz., the natural increase, net migration and the areal classification i.e., addition of new towns minus declassification of existing towns. Besides the extension of boundaries of towns also tend to influence the urban growth  [3]  . However urbanization is closely related to the agricultural surplus and industrialisation. Only when the agricultural system was capable of producing a surplus it was possible to divert labour for other activities. Thus, the size of urban population was directly related to the efficiency of agricultural production. Agricultural revolution facilitated more people per square miles than hunting and food gathering societies. Settled agricultural villages led to teleological advances, which further led to the process of urban development. Gordan Childe lists the features, which define the urban revolution. They are:  [4]   a) Permanent settlements in dense aggregations, b) Non-agriculturists engaging in specialized functions, c) Taxation and capital accumulation, Public buildings, e) Trade and f) The replacement of kinship by residence at the basis for membership in the community. With the expansion in agricultural production labour can easily be directed towards other sectors of production viz. Non-agricultural vocations which lead to non-agrarian settlements. These settlements qualify to be called cities or urban areas. The expansion of non-agricultural activities comprise of industrial units. These units offer large number of vacancies which attract people to the cities leading to urbanisation. The urban growth rate is higher in agricultural states like Punjab and Haryana and states like Maharashtra and Karnataka as compared to rest of the country. The agricultural development, better farm productivity, rising farm income and limitation in absorption of labour force, all lead to urbanization  [5]  . The three great socio-economic revolutions i.e. the industrial revolution, the agrarian revolution and the transport revolution, sparked off another great revolution, the Urban revolution. While the industrial revolution necessitated urbanization, the agrarian and transport revolutions facilitated it. The tremendous improvements in the agrarian section helped industrialization and urbanization by supplying raw material and food. Nevertheless, this was not sufficient for there has to be a satisfactory movement of men and material between the industrial centers and other places. Thus, the hinterland of an industrial urban center depended upon the efficiency of the transport system. Finally, large-scale industrialization resulted in large concentration of production facilities and people.  [6]   Industrialization results in increased production and the increased production in turn leads to division of labour. The produce has to be transported from one place to another and put in the market. This requires means of transport, markets, godowns, shops etc. Therefore, wherever there is industrialization, a big labour force is needed.  [7]  In other words, industrialization is considered a very factor for urbanisation. After 1991 India has followed a policy of economic liberalisation. With this Indian economy is increasingly becoming global. With the emergence of industrial passage, the new telecom technology, super highway development and internet exposure, the urban scene in India is going through radical transformation. New job opportunities are opening up in the cities. Multinational companies are opening their franchises in Indian cities creating lots of job vacancies for the Indian professionals. This phenomenon is bound to accelerate the urbanisation of some of the metropolitan cities. However, there is embedded shortcoming in the process itself. Arrival of MNCs as these multinational companies are called, will convert some of the Indian cities into Mega cities but it will not bring a boom of urbanisation in India. Only some of the cities which already have better infrastructure and amenities will benefit from them. Whether we should take it as a benefit or not is also controversial. Because concentration of these units in some cities will create problems of housing, transport, water and power supply sewage etc. As Dr. Bhagat predicts, small cities will remain neglected and they will not benefit from this rapid industrialisation. Therefore, it will not be correct to think that urban growth and rural to urban migration will accelerate in future  [8]  . GROWTH OF URBAN POPULATION IN INDIA With only one tenth of her population classified as urban, India entered the twentieth country as under-urbanized. It was only after independence that urbanization started acquiring momentum. In absolute terms, there has been a phenomenon growth in urban population since Independence. Many of Indian urban cities are can compete with any of the cities in the world. Apart from four metropolitan cities viz. Delhi, Bombay or Mumbai, Calcutta or Kolkata and Madras or Chennai; many big cities like Hyderabad, Banglore, Ahmadabad, Hyderabad etc are attracting attention of international traders and entrepreneurs. During the period 1947-2001, urban population has increased from 50 Million to 285 Million i.e. 27.8 percent of Indias population lives in urban areas as per 2001 census. The degree of urbanization in India has moved from nearly 11 percent in 1901 to about 30 percent in 2001 i.e. approximately trebling, while the absolute urban population has gone up from nearly 26 to 285 Million i.e. increasing by more than 11 times during that period. The tempo of urbanization had not been uniform across different censual decades rather it has recorded uneven momentum during 1901-2000. In India out of the total population of 1027 Million as of 1st March, 2001, about 742 Million live in rural areas and 285 Million in urban areas. The net addition of population in rural areas during 1991-2001 has been to the tune of 113 Million while in urban areas it is 6 Million. The percentage decadal growth of population in rural and urban areas during the decade is 17,9 and 31.2 percent respectively. The percentage of urban population to the total population of the country stands at27.8. The percentage of urban population to total population in the 1991 Census (including interpol ated population of Jammu and Kashmir where Census could not be conducted in 1991) was 25.7 percent. Thus, there has been an increase on 2.1 percentage points in the proportion of urban population in the country during 1991-2001.  [9]   GROWTH OF URBAN POPULATION IN HARYANA The Urban population of Haryana was 52.36 lacs in 2001 and is expected 83.43 lacs in 2011. At present the total population of the State is 207.64 lacs and 28% of it live in the Urban areas which is higher then the India total urban population. The number of municipal areas would therefore, increase tremendously requiring rural areas to be declared as municipal areas.  [10]   SPECIALISED AGENCIES AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT Urban Planning and development, and provision of civic amenities such as water supply, and sewerage, prevention of pollution constitute some of the basic functions of urban local government. But our municipal institutions are alleged to be incapable of performing these functions. The state governments therefore constitute specialised agencies such as: (i) Improvement Trusts (ii) Housing Boards (iii) Water Supply Sewerage Boards (v) Pollution-Control Boards to carry out these functions. The specialized agencies or single purpose agencies are set up in addition to the existing urban local bodies to provide a specific service in their respective area. Their presence has been extremely beneficial and purposeful taking into account their contribution in urban development. The study of these specialised agencies, is highly essential to explore the possibilities of analysing their strengths and weaknesses to make them vital urban development institutions. HARYANA URBAN DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY (HUDA) Haryana Urban Development Authority (HUDA), a statutory body of Haryana Govt. was constituted under the Haryana Urban Development authority Act, 1977. The authority consists of a Chairman (Minister for Town Country Planning and Urban Estates Deptt.), a Vice Chairman (Chief Secretary to Govt., Haryana), Chief Administrator and such other members (not more than 12 but not less than 6) appointed under notification issued from time to time provided that the number of non-official members shall not, at anytime exceed three. The HUDA has various wings, like Urban Branch, Engineering, Town Planning and Architecture, Financial, Legal and Monitoring. The Chief Administrator at the Head-. Quarters is the overall incharge and responsible for discharging functions of the Authority assisted by four zonal Administrators, posted at Panchkula, Faridabad, Gurgon, Hisar and one Administrator at H.Q. The Chief Administrator is guided by the polices framed by the Authority headed by the Minister- in-ch arge (designated as the Chairman of the Authority) of the Town Country Planning Departments, under Section 8 of the HUDA Act, 1977.  [11]   REVIEW OF LITERATURE The literature on urbanization is available in published and unpublished form. This includes public documents, government resolutions, reports of commissions and committees, contribution in specialized journals, papers presented at various national and international seminars and conference, reports of study teams sponsored by various research institutions both in India and abroad. Datta has discussed the system of municipal organisation, municipal administrative processes, state- local relations, municipal finance, organizing and financing urban development, goals of urban planning, urban economic base, urban land values, urban housing, urban community development and grass-root politics as if prevailed in the Pre-74th Amendment period.  [12]   Sachdeva has pointed out that urban governments have been decaying. Their performance in providing civic amenities has been dismal. Their supersessions have been rampant. Eminent academicians and seasoned administrators in their respective contributions to this compendium of articles on various facets of urban government have analysed the causes of this phenomenon, chief among these being their 19th century structure, erosion of their powers by multiplicity of special purpose agencies, financial scarcity, lack of adequately qualified personnel, political interference etc. They have also made valuable suggestions for restructuring, rejuvenating and revamping the urban Government for rendering them into effective instruments-for grass-root democracy and agencies for development and planning and provision of basic civic services. They all are of the view that the implementation of Constitution (74th Amendment Act 1992) in letter and spirit will hopefully achieve the desired objectives t hrough its main provision of three tier municipal bodies, regular elections, independent state Election and Finance Commission, District Planning Committees etc.  [13]   Goel and Dhaliwal discussed the existing, emerging and future problems faced by Urban local self government and come out with constructive suggestions, which can make the life of the people in the city enjoyable in all aspects.  [14]   Ray in his book A Short History of Calcutta take up the city in legend, tradition and literature, from the British advent, inner structure of the fort, towns and suburbs, its population and the port, as well as its trade. However, the scope of these work is limited as far as the process of urbanization is concerned. They take up different aspects of urban history in isolation and do not cover the pattern and processes of urbanization in terms of variations over time. No attempt is made to underline these factors responsible for change either. Grewal in her articles The Pattern of Urbanization in the Punjab under Colonial Rule and her doctoral thesis on Urbanization in the Punjab is one of the few works done on the subject of urbanization. Prior to this work the studies related to the region have largely been concerned with individual centers like Amritsar, Sirhind, Patiala and Faridkot and have remained essentially biographical and narrative and as such restricted in scope. This work is a comprehensive study in the urban pattern, urban demography, urban morphology, urban functions and urban government. The scope of this work, however, is limited to the developments in the Pre-Independence Punjab.  [15]   Gosals two articles special reference to Punjab are of much relevance for our present study. In the first article the author studies spatial variations in the growth of urban population in each decade and the locational shifts in areas of urban development from decade to decade.  [16]  In the second article he establishes that the development in agriculture develops smaller towns while industrialization leads to the emergence of large cities or metropolitan areas. However, these studies touch the fringe of the problem of urbanization as these do not discuss in detail the urbanization process in all respects especially in southern region particularly, after the creation of Haryana. These also exclude the introduction of National Capital region scheme. The first article limits the study upto 1961 while the other goes upto 1981.  [17]   K. Prabha in her book Towns : A Structural Analysis: A case study of Punjab, find out measures to safeguard the urban dwellers from problems arising out of the growing population. It covers two important problems of the present Punjab state: a) It analyses the structure through the dimensions of demographic, industrial and linkage analysis; b) It identifies the hierarchy of Punjab towns. It analyses the town in area and the town as area. Sharma in his Research work, Urban Development in the metropolitan Shadow: A case study of Haryana has taken up a study of urban development in the town of Rohtak and its evolution with special reference to its growth after independence due to the resettlement of displaced person from West Punjab and its overall effect on the economic, social and cultural life of the town and its surroundings. He highlights those aspects which have been generated by its location being in close neighbourhood of the swelling metropolis of Delhi. This study identifies the linkage that exists between Rohtak and its surrounding areas. However, its scope is limited as it leaves out the study of other such towns in the State of Haryana.  [18]   Sinhas Processes and Patterns of Urban Development: A case study of Haryana is an attempt at analyzing and determining the possible processes of urban development which have been responsible for the spatial pattern of urban settlement in Haryana. It concentrates on population study, urban- rural relations and the working population. It also presents an analysis of physical growth and functional morphological zones of select urban places in Haryana. This world does not co-relate the factors that influences the processes of urbanization and excludes a comparative study of the urbanization in Haryana and Punjab. It also ignores the capital region scheme and its impact on the process of urbanization in Haryana.  [19]   Chapterisation: The second chapter in this study will focus on the Urban policy and Legislation of HUDA. Here we will discuss about the fundamentals of the urban policy of the Indian union in general and Haryana in particular. The formation of HUDA in 1977 through Haryana Urban Development authority Act, 1977 will be discussed in detail. The third chapter is the Organizational setup of HUDA where we will discuss the constitution of HUDA and the placement of different officials in different cadres. The actual physical set up of HUDA will be the focus of this chapter. The Fourth chapter is Physical and financial performance of HUDA where we will discuss about the actual performance of HUDA in leading Haryana towards urbanisation. The fifth chapter is Accountability of HUDA, where we will look at the responsibilities and liability of HUDA. Indian is a democratic country where all the governmental institutions are ultimately answerable to the public or the people of India if we want to use the constitutional term. The sixth chapter consists of concluding remarks of the study and Suggestions regarding suitable measures to make Haryana Urban Development Authority more efficient and accountable institution for urban development.

Salingers Catcher in the Rye :: Catcher in the Rye Essays

This book is a good book. "What I was really hanging around for, I was trying to feel some kind of a good-by. I mean I've left schools and places I didn't even know I was leaving them. I hate that. I don't care if it's a sad good-by or a bad good-by, but when I leave a place I like to know I'm leaving it. If you don't, you feel even worse. ~J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, Chapter 1 I don't even know what I was running for - I guess I just felt like it. ~J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, Chapter 1 It was that kind of a crazy afternoon, terrifically cold, and no sun out or anything, and you felt like you were disappearing every time you crossed a road. ~J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, Chapter 1 People always think something's all true. ~J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, Chapter 2 People never notice anything. ~J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, Chapter 2 I'm the most terrific liar you ever saw in your life. It's awful. If I'm on my way to the store to buy a magazine, even, and somebody asks me where I'm going, I'm liable to say I'm going to the opera. It's terrible. ~J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, Chapter 3 When I really worry about something, I don't just fool around. I even have to go to the bathroom when I worry about something. Only, I don't go. I'm too worried to go. I don't want to interrupt my worrying to go. ~J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, Chapter 6 All morons hate it when you call them a moron. ~J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, Chapter 6 In my mind, I'm probably the biggest sex maniac you ever saw. ~J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, Chapter 9 It's really too bad that so much crumby stuff is a lot of fun sometimes. ~J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, Chapter 9 Sex is something I really don't understand too hot. You never know where the hell you are. I keep making up these sex rules for myself, and then I break them right away. Last year I made a rule that I was going to quit horsing around with girls that, deep down, gave me a pain in the ass.

Themes In African Creation Stories :: African Culture Essays

Themes In African Creation Stories Like all cultures, African cultures inevitably had to deal with the issue of "How did we get here?" To answer this pressing question, the people invented stories that reflect the values, morals, and norms of their individual societies. When one examines these stories, one can gain insight into what these cultures were like. "An African Cosmogony" tells of how the world was created through a powerful being named Bumba, who regurgitates the sun, moon, stars, and the first nine living creatures. One of the values that appears in this story is the responsibility of each person to do his fair share for the community. Each of the nine animals plays its role by creating more creatures to populate the world. For example, the small fish, Yo, brings forth the world's fish, while the beetle creates insects. This theme is further exemplified by the three sons of Bumba, who each try to do their part to complete the earth. However, one learns that one should not try to do more than one is capable of, as Chedi Bumba does, or the results will not be favorable. Bumba also makes it clear that those whose behavior is detrimental to the community have no place in the community. For instance, Tsetse, lightning, is chased away for being a trouble-maker. Bumba sums up this sense of community by saying, "Behold these wonders. They belong to you." The earth is both the property and responsibility of every creature. Lastly, the respect each person should have for the dead is shown through the ants, created by Nyonye Ngana. These creatures "went searching for black earth in the depths of the world and covered the barren sands to bury and honor their creator." "An African Story of the Creation of Man" takes a much different approach to explaining the origin of humankind. It tells of how the creator Juok molded each race from the colored clay of that region. Juok then provided humans with the things necessary to fully enjoy and appreciate life. Among these gifts were two legs, arms, ears, eyes and a mouth. This story depicts the perfection of humans in the sense that they are fully equipped with everything needed for practical purposes. It serves to make people value what they have and their ability to perform many tasks. The regurgitation theme is continued in "Egyptian Cosmogony and Theogony.

Ernest Hemingway Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ernest Hemingway was one of the greatest writers of the century. He was born at the close of the old century but was able to see the Disorders of the new century. Hemingway was marvelous in bringing about his pictorial effects for his readers even in his drunken state. Hemingway was skilled in the way he presented the â€Å"real† and â€Å"concrete† to be the first essentials in his writing. He put life back on the page so that we could see the grim reality of the truth. Hemingway’s style brought minute details to the surface so that the readers would understand his meanings. In the stories that I have chosen the critics have analyzed the story. In this paper I intend to prove that Ernest Hemingways writing in â€Å"Soldiers Home† and â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† influenced American writing styles through Symbols, Themes and writing techniques.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In several of Hemingway’s short stories, he uses one or more animals as symbols around which the story revolves. As central symbols, Hemingway’s animals are the manifestations of the psychological states and emotional desire of the main characters in the stories. He uses the symbols to enable the reader to comprehend the often not stated psychological forces that motivates them. Hemingway’s use of symbolism is a contribution to the richness of his characters. It provides the reader with a vehicle through which they can associate. Without them the stories would lose much of their color and clarity. In the short story â€Å"Soldiers Home,† Majorie Smelstor said â€Å" the title of this story suggests a familiar American landmark and symbol, The soldier’s home, a place for retired military to live and relive their war experiencesâ€Å" In this tale, however, the soldier’s home is neither a haven for ex-soldiers nor an envir onment for reminiscing† (MaGill 2170). Another symbol is the lies that Kerb lives with every day. Marjorie Smelstor said â€Å"For the townspeople do not want to hear the truth about the atrocities of battle, preferring, instead, lies about the heroics of war† (MaGill 2170). Marjorie Smelstor said In the end of the story â€Å"Mrs. Kerb’s reasserts her maternal role, reminding her son that she held him next to her heart when he was a tiny baby, Reducing kerb’s to the juvenile lie:† â€Å"I know, mummy†¦ I’ll try and be a good boy for you† (MaGill 2171).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ... ...ise† is a cleansing drink. It has a seed that aids in expelling gas from the alimentary canal to relieve colic. Colic is a paroxysm of abdominal pain localized in a hollow organ. The American orders this drink for him and the girl. â€Å"This clearly shows you that the conflict and lack of communication between the two of them† (Passey 33). The answer is still unresolved and the girl must choose between the man and the baby. At the end of the story the reader is not sure of the girl's decision. Hemingway left the end of the story unresolved.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In his life time Ernest Hemingway enjoyed tremendous success as a writer. His ability to describe a story in detail was his best talent. On the two stories, Ernest showed his unique ability of story telling. Hemingway was very clever in using Symbols to bring his characters to life. Hemingway wrote many of war stories but was never a soldier. He just had the talent of looking at life and writing it down in a symbolic way. Most all the critics come up with the conclusion that Hemingway was truly talented. He influenced other American writers with his style, symbols, themes and technique.

Government and Not for Profit Accounting

NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANISATIONS 13 2 Not-for-profit organisations Key points Many not-for-profit organisations (NFPs) feel they are poorly understood by government and the general public. Pressures to be more efficient have seen overhead spending reduced at considerable detriment to effectiveness and improved resource allocation over time (allocative efficiency). The sector is diverse, but NFPs display some common behavioural patterns: – Whereas the behaviour of for-profit business is driven mostly by their desire for profits, the behaviour of NFPs is driven mostly by their mission or communitypurpose. Demonstrated commitment to their community-purpose underpins support for their activities, whether by members for member-serving NFPs, or by donors and government who provide funding for community-serving NFPs. – Processes, often highly participatory, matter for NFPs because they provide value to the volunteers and members, and because of their central importance to mainta ining trusting relationships that form the basis for effective service delivery. – Control can be a major motivating factor for the managers of NFPs.While generally motivated by altruism, NFP management also benefits personally from their role when it confers status or power, builds their skills and contacts, and where it improves the environment for their other activities. These characteristics of NFPs have implications for the drivers of efficiency and effectiveness: – Processes that appear messy and inefficient to outsiders can be essential for effective delivery of services, especially those requiring engagement with clients who face disadvantages and are wary of government and for-profit providers.They can also be important to attract and retain volunteers, the involvement of which can be valued as much for the engagement outcomes as for replacing the need for paid labour. – It is possible that, for some managers, ‘doing’ can take precedence o ver ‘achieving’. Unless NFP boards are able to act decisively, such behaviour can undermine efficiency and effectiveness and threaten the sustainability of an NFP. – While greater scale and sharing of support services can improve production efficiency, NFPs can be reluctant to merge or collaborate where other interests might be eroded or where the purchase of support services adds to overheads. continued on next page) 14 NOT-FOR-PROFIT Key points (continued) Community-serving NFPs may lack adequate feedback mechanisms on their effectiveness (or lack thereof) as clients are often grateful for the assistance. This contrasts strongly with member-serving organisations, particularly small grass roots organisations, where member satisfaction is paramount to survival. While historically Australia fits in the ‘liberal’ social origin category (where government social spending is low and NFP activity is relatively large), since the 1970s government funding o f the sector has grown.From the 1980s, this has increasingly been under competitive allocation arrangements, with greater use of the sector to deliver government funded services. More recently, social enterprise is being seen as a way to harness network governance to address social issues. Along with demographic, ethnic and cultural changes (such as increasing environmental awareness), these forces are increasing demand for NFP activities. In responding to rising demand, NFPs report constraints arising from growing regulation and contract requirements, and challenges in accessing funding, finance, and skilled workers. ? Government can assist in addressing these constraints to facilitate sector growth and development; nevertheless the sector remains responsible for its own future. The diversity of the not-for-profit (NFP) sector makes any attempt to describe how NFP organisations (NFPs) behave challenging at best, and quite likely impossible. Nevertheless, such a description is impo rtant as one of the complaints from the sector is that government, and to a lesser extent business, fail to adequately understand the sector.This is reflected in both government and business expressing puzzlement over the reluctance of many NFPs to merge or collaborate, and more generally, what they see as resistance to change. The general public too, has conceptions about the NFP sector, and perhaps illusions about what is required to plan and deliver effective relief and preventive services. This is well illustrated in the resistance to spending on overheads: If there is any single issue that vexes managers and trustees of charitable foundations the world over, it is undoubtedly that of overhead expenses.The case against spending overhead dollars is as simple as it can be: every dollar that a foundation expends on overhead expenses is a dollar that it cannot spend on grants. Overhead expenses, therefore are leeches upon grantmaking. The case for spending overhead dollars is rather more complicated. (Orosz 2009) This chapter provides a general model of how NFPs make decisions on what they do and, importantly, how they go about it. It aims to shed light on the drivers of efficiency and effectiveness in the sector.This provides a segue into sector development and the question of the role of government. This chapter argues that this role is limited to providing an appropriately supportive operating environment, NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANISATIONS 15 investing in NFP activities that have considerable public benefit, and governments’ use of NFPs to deliver services. As a number of submissions noted, it is important for the sector not to become reliant on government: The Community/NFP sector †¦ is crucial to holding the government and market to account, and ensuring that they act legally and fairly to all.There are dangers he identified in any too close a collaboration between the sectors as critical roles are diminished, if their independence is reduced to in terdependence. The results can be an undermining of democratic balance of interests. (Women’s Electoral Lobby Australia Inc. , sub. DR241, p. 3, referring to the work of Claus Offe) 2. 1 Are not-for-profit organisations different? NFPs are driven by their ‘community-purpose’, which may focus on their members, targeted groups in the community (often the disadvantaged) or, more broadly, the ‘common-good’.In production, NFPs care about how (process) as well as what (activities) they do. And in management, those making the decisions often care deeply about the control they have over both process and choice of activities. It is this combination of community-purpose and concern about process and managerial control that characterises NFPs behaviour. One way to think about how NFPs operate is summarised in figure 2. 1. Processes that are participatory, inclusive, quality focused and accessible are central as they: engender trust and confidence in the organi sation, enhancing the reach and quality of the activities undertaken ? facilitate access to resources from multiple stakeholders including volunteer workers, as well as access to funding and in-kind resources, as NFPs can provide value to those making these contributions build the capacity and capabilities of staff, volunteers, members and clients for effective engagement over time, including their knowledge and ability to influence the design of future activities. These ‘quality’ processes contribute to achieving the outcomes of the NFP, including what might be incidental outcomes such as improved community connections.In some areas of activity, process, in particular for maintaining trust, can be critical to achieving outcomes. Trust and continuity of relationships is essential. It is the establishment of trust through the continuity of staff and service provision that builds the basis from which change can happen. †¦ [The] degree of trust rises with extent of t rustworthiness of information about the trustee. It is this element of trust where the NFP sector has an advantage over the for profit sector and why the capacity to deliver such programs is as strong as it is. (SDN Children’s Services, sub. 60, pp. 10-11) 16 NOT-FOR-PROFIT Billis and Gennerster (1998) argue that NFPs have a comparative advantage in delivering services where the motivation to address disadvantage, and knowledge of and sensitivity to client needs, are in scarce supply. In NFPs there is often a blurring of stakeholder roles, reducing the gap between clients and those delivering services, and between workers and management. Figure 2. 1 A schema of how not-for-profit organisations operate The bottom half of figure 2. 1 emphasises the importance of process as a motivating factor for management.NFPs are usually established by people who want to do something that is not being done or do it in a different way. People who take on the responsibility of managing an NFP are motivated not only by their belief in the community-purpose (often altruistic motivations) but also by their own role and how it contributes to their wellbeing. Whether their role confers status, power, builds skills and contacts, improves the environment for their other activities or provides self-fulfilment from engagement in a meaningful activity, this motivation needs to be satisfied for volunteer, and even paid, managers to remain committed to the organisation.Further, donors are increasingly looking for these types of ‘returns’ on their investments in NFPs in addition to achievement of the community-purpose. At an organisational level, sufficient stakeholders (donors, workers including volunteers, members, and clients) need to be satisfied by the outcomes achieved and/or by the process for the organisation to remain viable. Like for-profit business, NFPs can ‘fail’ and they will fail if sufficient stakeholders lose interest. If clients NOT-FOR-PRO FIT ORGANISATIONS 17 find their problems permanently solved, and the services of the NFP are no longer needed, this is indeed a good thing.At a sector level, failure of some NFPs, evolution of others, and establishment of new NFPs is just part of a healthy renewal process. Sector-wide, inclusive and participatory processes reflect and contribute to social capital – the relationships, understandings and social conventions that form an important part of the mediating environment that shapes economic and social opportunities. NFP advocacy, education of citizens, enabling of engagement in civic processes, and the creation of opportunities for connections work together to form a healthy civil society.Consequently the extent of NFP activity is often taken as an indicator of the health of society (Putnam, Leonardi and Nannetti 1993; PC 2003) The major differences in behaviour between for-profit and NFP organisations are nicely captured by Collins (2005). His assessment is replicated below in table 2. 1. Table 2. 1 Major differences between the business and social sector Issue Business Sector Social sector Accountability Primarily responsible to stakeholders Primarily responsible to constituents (e. g. disadvantaged children and their families) and myriad supporters or stakeholdersDefining and measuring success Widely agreed-upon financial metrics of performance Money is both an input (a means to success) and an output (a measure of success) Fewer widely agreed-upon metrics of performance Money is only an input, not an output Performance relative to mission, not financial returns, is the primary measure of success Focus Doing things right (efficiency) Competition to deliver the best products Doing the right things (effectiveness a) Collaboration to deliver the best outcomes Leadership/ Governance Governance structure and hierarchy relatively clear and straightforwardConcentrated and clear executive power often substituted for leadership Governance structures of ten have more components and inherent ambiguity More diffuse and less clear executive power with leadership more prevalent Talent Often have substantial resources to attract and retain talent Can more easily get the wrong people ‘off the bus’ for poor performance Often lack the resources to acquire and retain talent Tenure systems and volunteer dynamics can complicate getting the wrong people ‘off the bus’ Access to capital Efficient capital markets that connect to the profit mechanismResults attract capital resources which in turn fuel greater results, and so on No efficient capital markets to channel resources systematically to those who deliver the best results a This refers to both effectiveness (did it work? ), and to allocative efficiency (was it the right thing to do? ). Source: Collins (2005). 18 NOT-FOR-PROFIT 2. 2 Implications for efficiency and effectiveness The terms of reference refer to exploring ways to improve the efficiency and effectivenes s of the NFP sector. What constitutes efficiency and effectiveness varies across the different types of NFPs.The importance of process, and management control over process, has implications for efficiency and effectiveness of NFPs. So too, does the commitment to a specific community-purpose. Some NFPs have a different conception of efficiency and effectiveness or may eschew such notions altogether. These NFPs have a right to exist and, providing they cause no harm, should be left to do what they do in the way they like to do it. However, where public funding is involved or donors seek to achieve the best returns on their gifts, efficiency and effectiveness are central to maximising community wellbeing.It is important to distinguish between efficiency in production (how well inputs are turned into outputs) and efficiency in allocation (putting resources to the uses that deliver the best outcomes for the community). While both are important, it is the latter, provided the activities a re effective, that matters most for wellbeing, especially over time, a point supported by the Smith Family: †¦ the nonprofit sector should first ensure that they are focused on ‘doing the right things’ before consideration of how well they are doing them. sub. DR204, p. 4) Despite this, the attention paid by governments and donors to overhead costs as an indicator of an organisation’s worthiness drives a fixation with production efficiency. This can constrain investment in planning and evaluation which are essential for maintaining and improving effectiveness and efficiency. At an organisational level, cost-effectiveness in achieving the NFP’s communitypurpose is the most appropriate objective for managers.This assessment can be difficult as the results of social investment usually take time to eventuate and are often the product of forces in addition to the activity under scrutiny. Nevertheless, measurement challenges should not be allowed to divert attention from what matters — designing and delivering activities that deliver the desired outcomes (and no unexpected nasties) at least cost. This frees up resources to do more. Selecting which mix of activities gives the greatest benefit to the community is the ultimate allocation challenge.NFPs, through their advocacy and other avenues of influence, play an important role in guiding the selection of activities. Donors influence allocation through their giving. Government decisions on tax concessions can influence this allocation to some extent, however, their influence over allocation is greatest for direct funding decisions. Unlike the market for goods and services, where prices serve as an allocation mechanism, these forces provide only an indirect discipline on ensuring that the allocation of resources is optimal for the community.NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANISATIONS 19 Prevention is a good example of the allocation challenge. There is almost universal agreement that prevention is better than cure, and generally costs far less. Nevertheless, as it is difficult to demonstrate the value of avoiding a cost that would otherwise be imposed by a problem, prevention tends to attract less donor support. This issue is compounded by the exclusion of prevention in the definition of charity as applied for deductable gift recipient status. Figure 2. reflects the different roles that the NFP management, donors and government play in driving efficiency and effectiveness. While to some extent these stakeholders act like consumers in imposing discipline on NFPs to be efficient and effective, there are some significant differences from the market disciplines that drive efficiency and effectiveness in the (for-profit) business sector. The drivers of efficiency and effectiveness in NFPs Many NFPs argue that they operate on ‘the smell of an oily rag’, stretching their resources to the maximum.While often true, the importance of process can make NFPs appear messy and inefficient to outsiders, and even to some of the insiders. However, process can be central to the ability of a NFP to garner resources and deliver activities effectively. On the cost side, more participatory and inclusive processes can reduce the volume and/or quality of outputs by absorbing resources and slowing down delivery. This is observed in activity development and implementation that requires more one-on-one service delivery, time and resources to support participation in ecision making and greater individualisation of the service. Yet, on the benefit side, it may be these processes that give NFPs an advantage in trustworthiness or network governance1 that make them more effective, especially in the delivery of some human services. While a trade-off between production efficiency and quality is not unique to the NFP sector, NFPs often place a relatively higher weight on quality. In some cases quality, including quality of process, is strongly linked to effectiveness of t he activity, but in other cases the ‘doing’ can take precedence over the ‘achieving’.Where these processes are central to the governance of the organisation and part of the value it provides to its volunteers and members, processes should be seen as essential outputs for the sustainability of the NFP. However, as NFPs grow and become more ‘professional’ in their management, this type of ‘value’ from process tends to diminish. 1 Network governance is the relationships between organisations and individuals that is characterised by organic or informal structures, in contrast to bureaucratic structures of contractual relationships. 20 NOT-FOR-PROFITFigure 2. 2 Efficiency and effectiveness of not-for-profit organisations: drivers and constraints NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANISATIONS 21 Production efficiency tends to improve with scale, but mergers and growth can detract from valued processes, particularly in smaller organisations. NFPs can also be reluctant to collaborate to share support services such as back office and fund raising, possibly reflecting the transaction costs associated with establishing joint approaches. There are relatively few intermediaries offering these types of services to NFPs in Australia.This may be due to reluctance of NFPs to spend scarce funds on support activities thus offering little opportunity for such services to develop. Over time, efficient production requires investments in skills, capital, planning, research and relationships that allow the ‘best’ (defined by quality as well as quantity) outputs for the level of inputs. Many NFPs would agree that they face constraints on increasing their production efficiency due to difficulties accessing finance and in freeing up resources to invest in training and enabling technologies such as management systems.These constraints can create a tension between delivering now and being efficient in the longer term. Unlike businesses, where the financial bottom line is a good measure of their effectiveness, NFPs have to rely on other signals. NFP managers may resist honest feedback on effectiveness, or may, as with some donors, regard evaluation as wasted money. Member serving organisations are more likely to get direct feedback from their membership on how they are performing where members can ‘vote with their feet’.Client serving organisations, on the other hand, are less likely to get negative feedback especially where clients have no alternative services available. The community development literature of the 1970s stressed the value of ‘grass roots organisations’ as vested interests of members should result in the best or optimal selection of, and resource allocation to, activities. However, for larger organisations, the allocation of resources to the different activities will usually reflect management’s views on the contribution these activities make to their community-purpose.If donors and government funders want to influence the allocation of resources tensions can arise even in situations where they have provided the resources. Philanthropy is an important mechanism for allocating resources to organisations and activities that donors see as providing the greatest value for their gift. Given that wealthier individuals have greater ‘giving’ power, it is their (or their foundation managers’) assessment that tends to dominate this allocation. Similarly, large businesses also have the potential to influence activities undertaken by NFPs.The productivity of an organisation improves when it raises the efficiency and effectiveness of its resource use in the short term and when it invests wisely in resources that enhance its efficiency and effectiveness in the longer term. This will improve the productivity of the sector, especially when other NFPs follow suit. 22 NOT-FOR-PROFIT However, the productivity of the sector also improves when resour ces shift to those organisations that make better use of resources in terms of their contribution to the wellbeing of the broader community (PC 2008).These issues are explored further in chapter 9. The central message here is that NFPs may face significant resource constraints to achieving efficiency and effectiveness. More difficult to address is lack of incentive for some NFPs to minimise costs in the short run, or to invest in finding out how effective their actions are. Indeed, such actions may reduce the return to the NFP management if they interfere with valued processes. In addition, at a sector level, pursuit of community-purpose does not guarantee efficient allocation of resources.In addressing these constraints and challenges, it is useful to understand what drives sector growth and development. 2. 3 What drives sector growth and development? The NFP sector in a broader context The term ‘third sector’ distinguishes the NFP sector, the for-profit business secto r, and the government on the basis of where production occurs. The household sector also engages in production and is ultimately the source of labour and capital. Focusing just on production of goods and services, expansion of production in one sector by necessity reduces production in another sector if resources are fully employed.It is this conceptualisation that views NFPs as undertaking activities that the business sector does not find profitable to undertake, governments lack a mandate to provide, and households cannot undertake alone. In reality the picture (summarised in figure 2. 3) is far more complex: Government engages NFPs, for-profit business, and households (for example, through carer payments) in delivery of goods and services that government funds; consequently there can be some competition for government business.Similarly, the sectors compete for household resources and, in some situations, for markets, a classic example being the market for second hand clothing. Government, for-profit business and households recognise value in community and other activities provided by NFPs (complementarity) and provide resources (funding, in-kind resources and volunteers) to support these activities – some are of direct benefit to the funders, such as professional associations and children’s sporting activities some are only of indirect benefit to funders, such as community welfare activities, and environmental protection. NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANISATIONS 23 Figure 2. 3 Interactions between not-for-profit organisations, government, business and households NFP/Business intersect Trading activities for member benefits Trading activities for revenue to support community-purpose Professional associations NFP/Government intersect Delivery of government funded services Investment in community through NFPs Political parties Households Clients Volunteers Philanthropy Workers Not-for-profitServices to clients/community Services to members Management oppo rtunities Innovation Research Government Support NFPs through regulatory environment direct funding indirect funding (concessions) Influenced by NFPs advocacy for policy changes community expectations for services Business Support NFPs via philanthropy Compete with NFPs for government contracts and ‘member’ services Benefit from NFP impact on the mediating environment Partnering with NFPs to achieve social outcomes Social capital Legal & judicial system Market rules Mediating Environment Natural Environment Governments, for-profit businesses and households sit within a mediating environment with institutional, legal and market rules and conventions and social capital. While the product of history and the natural environment, this mediating environment is not static, but evolves over time as a result of the activities and processes in all four sectors. The mediating environment can both constrain and facilitate the development of the NFP sector. The likely relative scale and roles of the NFP sector depend on the mediating environment and the historical levels of competition and complementarity between 24 NOT-FOR-PROFIT he sectors. The view that NFPs passively fill the gap between what the market delivers and what governments have a mandate to fund is too simplistic; rather the role of NFPs reflects the inherent social compact that exists in a country. Social origins theory, developed by Salamon and Anheier (1997), points to different ‘historical moorings’ where the roles of government and the third sector reflect the ‘constellation of historical forces’. It identifies four types of non-profit regimes: statist, where government social spending is low and non-profit activity is small (such as in Japan) ocial democratic, where government social spending is high and non-profit activity is low (as in Scandinavian countries) corporatist, where government social spending is high and non-profits have a large economic size (Fran ce and Germany) liberal, where government social spending is low and non-profit economic activity is large (the US and UK) (Anheier 2005). The scale and scope of the NFP sector depends on the demand for the activities that the sector is well placed to provide, competition for supplying these activities and constraints on the sector’s ability to respond to these demands and to compete for resources.Sector development is not a defined pathway, rather it is the response of the sector to changes in the nature and scale of demand. The ability of the sector to respond depends on the constraints it faces, including the extent to which NFPs resist change. The evolution of government support for the sector in Australia Historically, Australia fits into the ‘liberal’ category, where accessing and funding human services has traditionally been the responsibility of the household. Households purchased these services from the for-profit business sector andNFP (often mutuals e stablished for the purpose). NFP ‘community social welfare organisations’ supplied services to those who lacked a capacity to pay. An implicit bargain between for-profit business and government on industry support underpinned paying workers a ‘living wage’ and workers accepting responsibility for purchasing their own human services. The 1970s saw a major shift toward a welfare state with government taking on a greater role in funding human services. Much of this expansion was achieved through increased public support for NFP service delivery (Smyth 2008).In the 1980s and 1990s, governments moved to a greater reliance on competitive market mechanisms for allocating resources and driving production efficiency. Described as ‘new public management’ this saw the privatisation of government NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANISATIONS 25 owned enterprises across a range of industries starting with banking in the 1980s and moving through to utilities, and the applica tion of a competitive neutrality test to government trading enterprises (Banks 2008).Despite governments moving away from producing goods and services, community expectations of what government will fund appear to have risen. Reflecting these two forces, there has been a shift to greater utilisation of segments of the NFP sector by governments for the delivery of services (Lyons 2009b). Government has provided indirect support to the sector in the form of tax concessions from before federation. The access to concessions varies across the jurisdictions, but most are based on a common law definition of charity (established in England in 1891 in Pemsel’s case).The Extension of Charitable Purpose Act 2004, sought to clarify that certain purposes (childcare, self-help groups and closed/contemplative religious orders) were indeed charitable. More recently, there has been a growing interest in the ‘third sector’ as an alternative way of organising production and the all ocation of resources (see for example, Blond 2009; Shergold 2009a). NFPs are seen as able to harness network governance to address social issues that markets and government cannot (Barraket 2008).Interest in alternatives to market and government allocation is also seen in the increase in philanthropy (chapter 7), the rising participation in volunteering (chapter 10), and growing engagement by businesses with NFPs (chapter 13). Demand growth and supply constraints on the sector As explored in detail in chapter 4, the sector has grown rapidly over the last eight years. This can be seen as arising from growth in demand, a significant share of which is related to the expansion of government funded services (chapter 12).Demographic factors have also played a role, for example, the baby-boom echo has seen a growth in school-aged children and with this demand for children’s activities. Similarly, the ageing of the population and early retirement has created a demand for more leisure and cultural activities. Increasing ethnic diversity of the population has generated new niches for NFPs both in community services and in member services. The ability of the sector to respond to these growing and changing demands depends on the constraints it faces on supply.Consultations and submissions identified four major sources of constraint on NFPs’ ability to grow and develop: Regulatory constraints: For unincorporated associations there are few legal requirements. However, this also limits the scope for activities that require a legal form (such as owning assets, contracting for services and purchasing insurance). NFPs that have a legal form face varying compliance costs, and can 26 NOT-FOR-PROFIT face difficulty with evolving their legal form and with changing their community-purpose. These issues are discussed in chapter 6. Contracting constraints: These apply to NFPs receiving financial support from government for their activities, either in the form of grants or through government purchasing of their services (although not always with full funding). While the funding allows for expansion of NFP’s activities, it generally comes with strings attached. These can include restrictions on other activities, but are more generally related to the delivery of the activity, including specification of quality standards and staff and volunteer qualifications. These issues are the subject of chapters 11 and 12. ? Funding and financing constraints: Unlike for-profit business, where demand comes with funds to purchase the goods and services, many NFPs face demand that is independent of the funding stream. To meet demand, especially in community serving NFPs, NFPs seek funding from government and donations from households and business. Many also look to generate income from their activities. In the absence of price as a rationing mechanism, demand will generally exceed supply, and many community-serving NFPs have to ration their services in some w ay.Member-serving NFPs face less of a funding constraint, but like community-serving NFPs, may face financing constraints which make it difficult to make investments such as in information systems, housing or training for staff. NFPs without a proven cash flow to service debt, or substantial assets for collateral, often have difficulty accessing capital markets. This matter is taken up in chapter 7. Skill constraints: While access to paid labour is strongly influenced by the ability to pay competitive salaries, and hence funding, NFPs are also concerned about access to skills.Many areas of NFP activities are becoming ‘professionalised’, resulting in a shift to paid employment to attract qualified workers. This can complement or crowd out volunteer labour. The former situation arises where employees (and their skills) add value to the volunteer experience. It is only in community services that crowding out of volunteers appears to be apparent, for reasons not well under stood. In some sectors, notably community services, skill shortages are a sector-wide issue related to low wages and lack of career paths.Boards too need to develop their governance skills as their tasks have become more complex with delivery of government funded services and demands by donors, members and clients for greater accountability. BRI Ferrier (2009) found that most NFP failures stem from inexperienced, weak or sympathetic supervisory groups. These issues are considered further in chapter 10. NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANISATIONS 27 Is there a role for government in sector growth and development? Government plays a considerable role in shaping the environment in which NFPs operate, irectly through its regulation of the sector, and indirectly in the ‘social contract’ it has with the community. As discussed above, the latter has shifted from a living wage based arrangement to a social safety net, providing income support to those not able to work or whose wage income is below that required to be selffinancing. In addition, a number of human services are funded by the government on a (non-income tested) needs basis, including health care and disability services. NFPs provide many of these services, some in competition with government or forprofit providers (for example, hospital care and employment services).Some of these government funded services are contestable only between NFPs, while others are delivered by sole providers. The choice by government to involve NFPs as providers involves consideration by government of value for money. Discussed in detail in chapter 12, value for money considerations should include: cost-effectiveness of service delivery — and the extent that this depends on the development of relationships with clients complementarity or joint-production with other services — which can enhance client wellbeing beyond that arising from the particular service being funded pillovers (positive and negative) associated with the service delivery — these arise as a by-product that affects others in the community, such as the utilisation of a community centre as a base for services for other groups, and the benefits that flow on from improvements in the lives of individuals as a result of their engagement with NFPs sustainability of the service delivery and/or client relationship, where the longterm effectiveness depends on the continued presence of the provider.Governments also invest in NFP activities through grants, and provide indirect support through tax and other concessions. In providing this support, governments usually look for ‘additionality’ — that is, the government funding attracts more resources into NFP activities than would otherwise have been the case. The net value added of expanding NFP activity in this way comes from a combination of greater direct benefits of these activities and higher spillovers than the alternative use of the resources. For househo ld donations, this alternative use might be savings or onsumption. For NFPs, the opportunity cost comes with the diversion of their resources into the activities for which the government provides support instead of other (preferred) activities. In these ways government both increases the funding available to the sector and influences its allocation across the various activities. 28 NOT-FOR-PROFIT Governments, especially state and territory governments, may also take a proactive role in sector development. In part this is related to their utilisation of the sector for service delivery.Government investments may be to strengthen the quality and/or financial viability of the NFP service providers, or to increase the number of potential providers and hence provide greater choice for clients and/or government agencies in tendering. But investment in the sector is also related to the role it plays in providing social capital and, in turn as discussed above, the value that this provides to wellbeing. This report looks at the role of government as a regulator of, investor in and procurer of NFP services and activities.It also considers the role of government as a facilitator of philanthropy and the engagement of other sectors with NFPs. These roles differ across the segments of the NFP sector, and for many parts of the sector government plays little role beyond providing a sound regulatory environment. The Commission’s view is that government’s role in sector development should be limited to where it utilises the sector for service delivery and to where it sees considerable community benefit from its investment. This view, that the sector should be largely responsible for its own development, reflects the importance of independence of the sector.The link between government funding and loss of independence has been well recognised: One of the key traditions learned the hard way in the early days nearly 75 years ago, was that to accept funding from outside sources was to create outside interference with the manner of spending, and vulnerability to sudden loss of or short term, not necessarily reliable, funding. (Dr Vanda Rounsefell, sub. DR260, pp. 1-2) The next three chapters turn to measuring the contribution of the sector at an aggregate, organisation and activity level. This is central to improving the understanding of the sector by government funders, philanthropists and NFPs